A parasocial relationship is a one-sided bond with a person you regularly see online, such as an influencer.<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">They can alleviate loneliness, but can also become inappropriate.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Influencers use authenticity and self-revelation to build trust. Trust can lead followers to view the influencer's advice as reliable, even in areas without expertise.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">The emotional connection can lead to loyalty and defence of the influencer against criticism, which can contribute to the epistemic cohesion of the community.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Parasocial relationships can foster strong loyalties that suppress potentially dissenting opinions.</li></ul>

Parasocial Relationships

"It is not enough to dismiss pseudo scientists or cultists as fools, some extremely clever people have fallen into one or both of these camps. I think it is more fruitful to look at how these unreliable beliefs are proposed and maintained despite consistent evidence to the contrary and to avoid these social structures both in our own lives and in our societies."

"It seems the problem isn't necessarily that the statements are unfalsifiable but how people react to the statement's falsification. Do they accept it or do they unjustifiably reject it?"

"The point is not that epistemic closeness is undesirable, but rather the reasons why it is closed to certain things and certain ideas is important."

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Many things considered to be pseudoscientific are not included in Popper's definition.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Sometimes scientists reject the falsification of a theory for good reasons, as was the case with Newtonian mechanics and the discovery of Uranus.</li></ul>

Problems With Popper's Definition

The philosophers John Dupré and Mimo Puchi argue that pseudoscience can be thought of as a cluster concept, in which different pseudosciences fulfill different criteria to a greater or lesser extent.Martin Manner has proposed a set of criteria for determining whether something is a pseudoscience, such as whether the results of experiments can be independently reproduced, whether the theories make specific predictions, and whether they use valid argumentative structures.

The Cluster Concept

Efforts are needed to open up epistemically closed groups. Important strategies are:<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Strict scrutiny of ideas for precision, logic and reasoning.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Willingness to revise old ideas in the light of new findings.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Promoting a free and open exchange of ideas without fear of consequences.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Avoidance of political motivation in hypotheses.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Unbiased evaluation of research findings.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Questioning the reasons for trusting authorities.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Examination of taboo subjects and their reasons.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Active engagement with dissenters.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Strengthening awareness of peer pressure.</li></ul>

How To Open Up Closed Epistemic Groups

Defining pseudoscience is difficult. Popper introduced the Falsifiability Criterion, which states that a statement can be considered pseudoscientific if it does not make falsifiable predictions that can be proven false, ultimately refuting the theory.A common example of pseudoscience is astrology, which attempts to predict one's life using vague descriptions that could apply to almost anyone in any circumstance.

What Is Pseudoscience?

Epistemically closed groups ignore or invalidate alternative perspectives or evidence that contradict their beliefs.<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">They favor people that share their ideas and show low tolerance of dissenting opinions.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Statements or ideas are less critically scrutinized within the group and they have many taboo subjects. They cling to their beliefs despite new evidence refuting them.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">They follow authorities.</li></ul>

Closed Epistemic Groups

Cults represent an extreme example of epistemic closure. In cults, believers are encouraged to cut off friends and family who do not join and preemptively discredit evidence that contradicts the cult's beliefs.Influencers and social media can unintentionally promote epistemically closed systems through the formation of parasocial relationships.The isolation of dissenters in the digital space can lead to a strengthening of extreme opinions. A strong sense of belonging in online groups, including conspiracy groups, can also contribute to epistemic closure.

Cults & Social Media

‘Unsolicited Advice’ talks about pseudoscience, cults and the role social media plays in this.

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Pseudoscience, Cults, and misinformation go hand in hand. But how do these communities come to be, and how are they so effective at spreading nonsense? Well, today let's find out. And let's discover the worrying way these dynamics are mirrored on social media and our everyday lives.

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Some sources on the disputes around echo chambers:
https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.06631
https://arxiv.org/abs/2004.09603
https://www.rcommunicationr.org/index.php/rcr/article/view/16
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10388309

00:00 Pseudoscience and Misinformation
03:30 Pseudoscience: A Brief Introduction
12:45 Cults and Epistemology
20:15 Influencers and Social Media
30:19 Knowledge, Truth, and Communities

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